Comparing Beowulf And Sir Gawain Essay - 1388 Words

A hero is defined as a person noted for courageous acts or nobility of character. This character is often seen in a variety of modern and ancient literary works and is commonly painted to be an optimal version of what that particular society values. Beowulf and Sir Gawain are examples of two different types of literature which were written at different times during ages where certain ideals were upheld. These ideals, which were popular in their corresponding eras, in some ways contrast and in other ways resemble each other. Nevertheless, they were shaped in accordance with the archetypal structure that permeates all literary works--that of the Monomyth, a concept first developed by Joseph Campbell in his monumental work The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Among these values are pride, bravery, kinship, promise, chastity, perseverance, courage and humility. Beowulf and Sir Gawain’s departures from their homelands to their places of adventure demonstrate a similarity in that both heroes accept the call to adventure solely to bring themselves pride and to defend their honor. Beowulf accepts the call to save the people of Denmark after word spreads to Geatland of the terrible monster, Grendel. Similarly, Gawain accepts the challenge of the Green Knight after he calls King Arthur s knights cowards or â€Å"bearded children† (Weston, Part 1b). Although, these two characters hail from different time periods in history, both of their societies valued individual honor which is the mainShow MoreRelatedComparing Beowulf And Sir Gawain And The Green Knight1338 Words   |  6 Pagesmake me really love it called â€Å"Beowulf† and â€Å"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.† Both of this story illustrated between these women s always try to overcome with all the mission in life and show their responsibility to achieve success fully in life. Thus, the poet shows that the women s role in British literature is a very good central point, they always face with all these conflicts about the protagonist male throughout the poem. Besides that, Beowulf and Sir Gawain always challenge with all the womenRead MoreComparing Sir Gawain And The Green Knight And Beowulf733 Words   |  3 Pagesof Norsemen. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Beowulf as translated by Simon Armitage and Seamus Heaney, the core values of the two codes are respectively personified as the two protagonists. Despite the numerous similarities between these two disciplines, they differ over the existence of one key concept – humility. While boasting plays a central role in a Scandinavian warrior’s career, the Knights of the Round Table practice humbleness instead. Both Beowulf and Sir Gawain are preceded byRead MoreComparing Beowulf And Sir Gawain And The Green Knight Essay1555 Words   |  7 Pagesto that ideology is, does one value loyalty? Among the many values of the Anglo-Saxons, such as bravery, truth, and honor, above them all stands loyalty. Through an archetypal analysis, one may view how two major works of the Middle Ages, Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, both reflect attributes of loyalty, specifically the testing of one’s loyalty and the consequences of disloyalty, which reflect the behavior and values shared by the Anglo-Saxons and the people of the Late Medieval eraRead MoreComparing Beowulf And Sir Gawain And The Green Knight Essay1762 Words   |  8 Pagesabout, ultimately tying in with the theme of the work. Beowulf and Sir Gawain both exhibit what the Anglo-Saxons and the Middle-English viewed as both proper and improper conduct. What the reader encounters through these two characters, however, involves a paradigm shift between the two cultures, with values, fate and pride leading to demise , reflected in Beowulf contrasting with those, the knight’s code of honor and chivalry, expressed in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. These dissimilar worldviewsRead More Comparing the Hero in Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight921 Words   |  4 PagesBeowulf and Sir Gawain – True Heroes Heroes come in many forms. The construction of the heroic has taken many forms, yet traits such as: courage, honor, and loyalty, reappear as themes throughout the hero personality. The characters of Beowulf and Sir Gawain each represent a version of a hero, yet each comes across quite differently in their story. A hero can be said to truly win if he remains constant to his noble values when put in any situation that crosses his way. When measured by thatRead MoreComparing Honor and Bravery in Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight475 Words   |  2 Pages Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Beowulf share several similar qualities. Each story suggests that honor, truth, and heroism are the most important a person can exhibit, though in each tale these are manifested in different ways. Both characters, in attempts to keep these values, make mistakes that endanger their lives. Beowulf is an incredible, and at times unbelievable, hero who can and will attempt to defeat anyone to keep others safe. This will eventually lead to his death as he successfullyRead More Essay Comparing the Role Models in Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight2261 Words   |  10 PagesRole Models in Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Excellence has always been a virtue revered by society. Writers throughout the ages have tried to capture the essence of excellence in their works, often in the form of a title character, who is the embodiment of perfection, encapsulating all the ideal traits necessary for one to be considered an excellent member of society. However, the standards for excellence are not universally agreed upon. On the contrary, one mans idea ofRead MoreSir Gawain And The Green Knight And Beowulf1471 Words   |  6 Pagesthe characters and plots of â€Å"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight† and â€Å"Beowulf† differ greatly from each other, the key themes of each of these works are quite similar. In both tales, the reader meets a hero who is endowed with mental, physical, and spiritual gifts that equip him for the task of confronting his foes. This serves to remind the reader or listener to consider the themes of heroism, as well as the theme of the constant battle between good and evi l. By comparing these two works, the readerRead MoreEssay on The Changing Concept of Hero988 Words   |  4 PagesReading these stories in this day and age is interesting to look at because we can trace the difference in the heroes throughout Beowlf, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and The Faerie Queene and therefore literally throughout time. The differences that can be seen are the characters armor, the enemies that are being faced, and the values of each of them. Beowulf has no known author but it is thought to be written before the Anglo-Saxon exodus is completed but after the conquest began (p.30). AlsoRead More A Comparison of Perfection in Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight1077 Words   |  5 PagesPerfection in Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight The heroes of both Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight are fighters. However, the traits they have in common are far less numerous than those that set them apart. As each of the two is dubbed perfect by his contemporaries, it should be possible to draw the picture of both the model warrior and the paragon knight by comparing Beowulf and Gawain. The first question to arise is that of leadership. In Beowulf, the hero is referred

What is Spillover Essay - 612 Words

What is spillover? How does spillover lead to underestimation of the impact unions have on wages? According to Newman, Garth, and Milkovich, spillover theory is the theory where workers are thought to participate in leisure activities that have characteristics similar to their job-related activities and tasks (Singh Selvarajan 2013). Respectively, those theories are similar and different depend on the situation. For instance, spillover theory can be a reflection of the positive correlations between types of activities engaged in at work. Also, there are positive correlations between subjective reactions to work and to leisure and family life. More importantly, there are exceptions to the spillover concern in retrospective to physical†¦show more content†¦Why don’t many public sector unions have the right to strike, a weapon almost universally guaranteed in the private sector? Though, unions are declining, the role of union have evolved over time. Now, it is more common to view unions’ primary role as collective bargaining, which is the product of the economic decision and making process with unionism of the private sector. A long time ago, Union was seen as the shield that protects American workers against some of the abusive employers. Many public sector employees have unionized. However, the National Labor Relations Act was designed for the private sector. Despite that, union has become a model for most public sector collective bargaining right. Regardless of the success that Unions have with collective bargaining in the private sector, there are still a few who are opposed collective bargaining in the public sector. Of course, there are some differences between the public and private sectors. One of the many arguments is that most, if not all public sector service(s) service is monopolistic. Often time, there is one source of supply for a government service. For example, residents of a city have one fire department, one police department, and one system of public education. Even though each of those entities, many of them have different branches, they are all fall underShow MoreRelatedWhat Value Of The Project Itself Its Spillover Effects On The Hk Economy1527 Words   |  7 PagesEstimated Future State The â€Å"Spillovers† and â€Å"HKSAR valuation† tabs in the attached Excel workbook show how we calculated the value of the project itself, its spillover effects to the HK economy, and the overall net benefit to Hong Kong. We essentially did a traditional discounted cash flow analysis. We had to make assumptions and estimations of the future value of variables such as the HK inflation rate, tourist growth rate, etc. Based on historical data, analyst projections, and market researchRead MoreCritical Ideas of Innovation Management: Advantages and Disadvantages1084 Words   |  4 Pagesknowledge spillover (LKS) is a comparatively recent idea that pertains to one or a few agents of another field or company (generally in research and technology) ending up, intentionally or otherwise, using the innovative ideas of another individual as part of their research . There are various problems with LKS many of which are dealt with economists. These include the following: Where and how do you set its extremal perimeters when does such a concept of knowledge spillover occur What kind ofRead MoreDoes Foreign Direct Investment Boost the Productivity of Domestic Firms?967 Words   |  4 PagesPereira and Slaughter (2007) investigate whether there are any productivity spillovers of inward FDI. They seek to answer this question because it will help governments to gauge the degree to which they should promote inward foreign direct investment. Governments often provide incentives to attract investment, and in order to set an appropriate amount of taxpayer money to such endeavors, they need to have a sense of what the payoff might be. Direct inward FDI can be easily measured, but the authorsRead MoreThe Importance Of Emotion And Cognition And How They Affect One Another888 Words   |  4 Pageswithout thinking? My argument is that indeed our emotions do enhance our cognition. How can we react to something if we don’t have any emotion about it? Also, I assert that we can indeed have emotion without rational thought. Let’s begin with cognition, what is cognition? Cognition is the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. Thus, I contend that our emotions can enhance our actions in certain situations. Think about when you areRead MoreHockey Violence Essay1706 Words   |  7 Pagesbut the fans as well. As violence in hockey is as many fans say part of the game and what makes â€Å"hockey† hockey, the negative outcomes overweigh the positive. From fights to brawls, slashes to high sticks, boarding to head contact the violence surrounds the entire game. As fans cheer and rant at their full potential when a fight breaks out during a hockey game, not realizing that in actuality the potential of what can happen can be devastating. 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In using latent class analysis and logistic regression techniques we can find the distinct patterns of male or female domination. Studying two separateRead MoreThe Policy Rate Difference Between Emerging Economy And The United States709 Words   |  3 Pageseconomies, which in turn feed back into the U.S economy. Even though, the relative magnitude of monetary policy spillovers depends on various country-specific characteristics including exchange rate policy, financial market development, macro-economic fundamentals, and trade openness, it is important for both advanced and emerging economies to take measures to limit the negative spillovers. According to our results, the policymakers in emerging market economies should closely monitor the movementsRead MoreThe Silicon Success Formul Bunching Up Firms And The Involvement Of Universities1627 Words   |  7 Pagesthese businesses utilize the talents of graduating students with Computer Science or Information Technology degrees. Since these tech firms cluster, knowledge spillovers are acquired because of the communication and/or competition between interconnected businesses who employ students with varying talent levels. From those knowledge spillovers follow the external economies of scale to mass-tech production of products within Silicon Valley firms. Bresnahan, T., Gambardella, A. (2010) confirmed theRead MoreThe Impact Of Foreign Direct Investments In China1306 Words   |  6 Pagesof the host country. At the firm-level, Lipsey and Sjà ¶holm (2004b) argue the FDI increases wages when foreign firms take over domestic firms. They also find the opposite is true when local businesses take over foreign companies. This positive spillovers [increase in wages] have been found most frequently in developed countries (Lipsey and Sjà ¶holm, 2004). Reinforcing the idea that inward FDI has a positive economic impact on the host country. Furthermore, some scholars attribute FDI to the enhancement

Othello And Hamlet Themes Essay Example For Students

Othello And Hamlet Themes Essay The plays Othello and Hamlet, written by William Shakespeare, have manysimilarities and differences. Two main characters Iago, of Othello, and Hamlet,of Hamlet, can be compared and contrasted through characterization. Characterization is the represent ion of characteristics or motives of acharacter. Both characters have different character traits which make them trulydifferent from one another, but their ending resolutions are remarkably thesame. In Othello, Iago is a very manipulative and cunning character. Iagosentire scheme begins when Cassio is given the position that Iago wanted. Iagothen comes up with numerous ideas and plots to steal the position he feels hemost deserves. Iago decei s, steals, and kills to gain that position. Iago liesto his loved ones including his wife and friends. Iago tricks Othello intobeleiving that his own wife, Desdemona, is having an affair, without anyconcrete proof. Othello is so caught up in Iagos l s that he refuses to believeDesdemona when she denies the whole thing. Iago also manages to steal from hisown friend, Roderigo, without feeling guilty. He uses the money that Roderigogives him to try and win over Desdemona. When Roderigo discovers th Iago hasbeen usi ng his money he screams at Iago and threatens to kill him. However, Iagobeing very manipulative tells makes up a plot that involves Roderigo to capturethe heart of Desdemona. Roderigo believes Iago and forgets about Iago stealinghis oney. Iagos plan is for Roderigo to kill Cassio. At the ending of the play,Iagos plot is given away to Othello by his own wife, Emilia. Iago realizes thathis plot has been revealed and sees his wife as an obstacle and an annoyingperson who has let t his secret, so he kills her. Iagos merciless taking ofEmilia, his wife, and Roderigo, his friend, lives is another one of Iagoscharacteristic of a an immoral human being whos main concern is to protecthimself. On the other hand, in Hamlet, Hamle is the perfect example of thetragic hero. Hamlet has all the good traits needed to be a tragic hero. He isbrave and daring. One example of this is that when he went to England, he wastaking a big risk. If his plan didnt work, he would have been exec ed. Hamletis also loyal. His loyalty to his father, was the reason he was so angry atClaudius and his Mother. Claudius married King Hamlets wife shortly after KingHamlets death. Another trait of Hamlet was that he was intelligent. He was ableto t nk up the idea of faking insanity, in order to get more information aboutClaudius. But Hamlet like all other tragic heros had a flaw. He couldnt getaround to doing anything, because he couldnt move on. It took him a long timeto stop grieving about is father, because he didnt want to move past that partof his life. And after he finally did, Hamlet couldnt get around to killingClaudius. He kept pretending he was insane even after he was sure that Claudiuskilled his father. When Hamlet was chal nged to a fencing match against a chosenopponent from the king Hamlet agrees. Finally, Hamlet is in a state of peace andreadiness, accepting his fate. Hamlet has been through a lot in his lifetime. Hehas been deceived, lied to, and lost the ones he h truly loved. The pla ysOthello and Hamlet can be compared through their characterization of characters. We will write a custom essay on Othello And Hamlet Themes specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The final resolutions in both plays seemed to have the same bloody effects ofdeath. In Othello, Iagos manipulative characteristic led him to death. Iagosmanip ative plot of deceit, betrayal, and turmoil led him to his downfall whenhis plot was revealed. Iagos manipulative plot led to the death of manycharacters in the play. Desdemona died because her husband did not believe thatshe was being loyal to him ter Iago proclaimed that she was cheating on Othello. .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 , .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 .postImageUrl , .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 , .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3:hover , .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3:visited , .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3:active { border:0!important; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3:active , .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3 .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ua5266b320462cbc82ab214b5f0f38ce3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Type and Structure of Crime and Punishment EssayEmilia, Iagos wife, died because she revealed Iagos plot. Roderigo diedbecause he was used and manipulated by Iago. And finally Othello died because hewas tricked, by Iago, into believing things thout any known proof. In Hamlet,Hamlets vengenance for his fathers murderer led him to kill Laertes. Gertrude,Hamlets mother, dies after she accidentally drinks a poisoned glass. AfterHamlet sees Gertrude has died, he forces Claudius to drink the emaining poison. Hamlet dies after he is told by the dieing Laertas that the sword was poisonedand Hamlet has only thirty minutes to live. In both plays each charactersmotives, actions and characteristic traits had equal and similair results,death. In Shakespeares plays he often creates a straight forward atmosphere inwhich the reader can differentiate from good and evil. He shows thischaracteristic through his characters in the way they act and their motives. Forexample Hamlets actions show that he is a loyal and faithful person. WhileClaudius actions show us that he is very cunning and sly, only looking to gainpower. A.C. Bradley was a literary critic who criticized and analyzed many worksof Shakespeare including Othello and Hamlet. his temperament the Elizabethanswould have called melancholic. Next, we cannot be mistaken in attributing to an exquisite sensibility to which we may give the name moral. To thevery end, his soul, however sick and tortured it may be, ans rs instantaneouslywhen good and evil are presented to it, loving the one and hating the other. A.C. Bradley shows that Shakespeare often has very villainous charactersand hero type characters that allows the readers to differentiate from the villns and the heroes. In conclusion, these two plays, Othello and Hamlet, writtenby William Shakespeare have proven their comparisons and contrasting points verywell. Both plays have their similarities in their own way, but there aredifferences that virtually make the boo truly unique.

Job satisfaction free essay sample

Kuala Lumpur Evaluation of Learning for Performance Improvement International Conference, The Royale Chulan, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 5-6 December 2012 Job Satisfaction Levels among Academic Staff at Kolej Profesional MARA, Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia Norulhuda Awang a aUniversiti Malaysia Kelantan Kuala Lumpur Campus, Bukit Jalil Malaysia Abstract The education gives specific roles to the development of the future nation. Therefore, in general the role of lecturers is really essential in generating a quality graduate who will in turn brings up the nation ahead since the educated graduates are the assets of one country. This paper intended to ascertain the impact of job satisfaction of Kolej Profesional MARA, Seri Iskandar academic staff on their commitment towards academic activities. Besides that, it also investigated specifically factors contributing to job satisfaction, namely promotional opportunities, management style, working environment, workload, and relationship with colleagues. Overall, the findings of this paper indicate that satisfied academic staff will be committed to their job, with job satisfaction, it was hoped that the productivity as well as students performance will increase. We will write a custom essay sample on Job Satisfaction or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Lower job satisfaction create unpleasant scenario where at a situation lack of presence in class and high absenteeism and this will lead to demotivated students at the same time lower students performance. This paper contributes to the management and practical implications of the college in relations to employee satisfactions.  © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of Global Entrepreneurship Research Innovation Center (GERIC), Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Malaysia Key words: job satisfaction, promotional, management style, workload, Malaysia 1. Introduction Education is one of the most important institutional organisation of a nation. It oversees issues on national agenda. Its effective running depends firmly on its coordination in the direction of societal expectation. Successful educational programs lie on the important contributions of effort, involvement, and most importantly on the overall teacher (academic staff) professionalisation. Academic staff job satisfaction, commitment, and retention are crucial to effective schools (academic institutions). A positive and healthy university climate translates into increased academic staff job satisfaction. A healthy university climate will not only increase the job satisfaction of academic staff but it will at the same time improve the learning environment and increase the productivity of the university. In addition, it becomes significant to job satisfaction because commonly held visions and beliefs, coupled with a positive environment, carry with them energy for success. Job satisfaction has been an important topic over the years (Akfopure et al. , 2006). It is of importance as job satisfaction is believed to contribute to job performance as well as work commitment. An employee who is satisfied with his job would perform his duties well and be committed to his job, and subsequently to his organization. Thus, it is of utmost importance for employers to know the factors that can affect their employees’ job satisfaction level since it would affect the performance of the organization as well. Many studies have been done to account for factors that affect job satisfaction. Among the factors are job autonomy, working environment and management styles. Karim (2008) broadly categorized the factors into work and worker related variables. Due to its importance, many research have been done pertaining to job satisfaction in various professions such as library (Karim, 2008), construction (Jaafar et al, 2006) and education (Huda et al, 2004; Chimanikire et al, 2007; Santhapparaj and Alam, 2005). There is also a lack of consistent definition for job satisfaction. Job satisfaction has been defined as a single global concept that refers to the overall satisfaction levels (Ying Ahmad, 2009) or as a multiple dimensional concept that refers to the psychological or sociological factors. Multiple dimensional concepts have been applied to discover how employees are affected by for example, the intrinsic and extrinsic elements of their jobs (Ssesanga Garret, 2005; Lacy Sheehan,1997). Other researchers prefer to define job satisfaction as the willingness to perform a task (Mertler, 2002), or how people feel about their jobs (George Jones, 1996; Mertle, 2001) or â€Å"a global feeling about the job†¦Ã¢â‚¬  in order to find out which part of the job produces satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Spector, 1977). Henne and Locke (1985) defined job satisfaction as a pleasurable or positive emotional state that one derives from their job experience. Similarly, job satisfaction is defined as a situation when an employee begins to compare the actual job outcome to the desired job outcome which is the result of an affectionate reaction to a given job situation (Kusku, 2003; Rad Yarmohammadin, 2006). Generally, academic researchers would prefer to define job satisfaction based on the dual theory of Herzberg et al. (Lacy Sheehan, 1997; Ssesanga Garret, 2005; Rad Yarmohammadin, 2006). As such, job satisfaction studies were based on the notion that the academicians’ source of satisfaction comes from the intrinsic factors which are related to job content and extrinsic factors that are associated with the working environment. Job satisfaction is a worker’s sense of achievement and success on the job. It is generally perceived to be directly linked to productivity as well as to personal well-being. Job satisfaction implies doing a job one enjoys, doing it well and being rewarded for one’s efforts. Job satisfaction further implies enthusiasm and happiness with one’s work. Job satisfaction is the key ingredient that leads to recognition, income, promotion, and the achievement of other goals that lead to a feeling of fulfilment (Kaliski,2007). The term job satisfactions refer to the attitude and feelings people have about their work. Positive and favourable attitudes towards the job indicate job satisfaction. Negative and unfavourable attitudes towards the job indicate job dissatisfaction (Armstrong, 2006). Job satisfaction is the collection of feeling and beliefs that people have about their current job. People’s levels of degrees of job satisfaction can range from extreme satisfaction to extreme dissatisfaction. People also can have attitudes about various aspects of their jobs such as the kind of work they do, their co-workers, supervisors or subordinates and their pay (George et al. , 2008). We consider that job satisfaction represents a feeling that appears as a result of the perception that the job enables the material and psychological needs (Aziri, 2008). 2. Literature Review In Malaysia, a study conducted by Noordin and Jusoff (2009) in public universities reported that academicians were moderately satisfied with their careers. Salary seems to have a significant effect on their level of job satisfaction. Nasurdin and Ramayah (2007) and Yew (2007) reported that job satisfaction among the Malaysian workforce was derived particularly from extrinsic factors such as salaries, promotion and supervision which are linked positively to commitment to the organisation. Wong and Heng (2009) recently attempted to study job satisfaction of the academic staff in two Malaysian universities. This case study was conducted on a hundred (100) faculty members of both the private and public universities. They did not include some of the job aspects that were important, such as research and teaching. In their study, they concluded that the source of job satisfaction came from policies implemented, administration and the salary scheme. The source of dissatisfaction came from personal achievement, growth, interpersonal relationships, recognition, responsibilities, supervision, the work itself and working conditions. In another study by Santhapparaj and Alam (2005) there were indications that the academic staff in three private universities in Malaysia were satisfied with their salaries, promotions, working conditions and support given for research. Saad, Samah and Juhdi (2008) who carried out a study in a private university found that the academic staffs was moderately satisfied with the health programmes, working environment, flexible hours, relationship with peers and superiors and the opportunity to be independent. The academic staff indicated low satisfaction in areas concerning salaries, facilities, work load, opportunities, equitable performance appraisals, opportunity for advancement, job security and recognition. This study partially supports Hertzberg’s theory and due to the nature of the sample, it cannot be generalised to the industry. Job Satisfaction free essay sample Of those researchers, Robert Hoppock is perhaps the most widely cited, although others have emerged with definitions reflecting more current theoretical underpinnings of job satisfaction. Some of the versions use the terms job attitudes, work satisfaction, and job morale interchangeably, which may explain the lack of a standardized job satisfaction definition. Within the literature, Hoppock offered one of the earliest definitions of job satisfaction when he described the construct as being any number of psychological, physiological, and environmental circumstances which leads a person to express satisfaction with their job (Hoppock, 1935). Smith et. al. (1969) defined job satisfaction as the feeling an individual has 11 about his or her job. Locke (1969) suggested that job satisfaction was a positive or pleasurable reaction resulting from the appraisal of one’s job, job achievement, or job experiences. Vroom (1982) defined job satisfaction as workers’ emotional orientation toward their current job roles. Similarly, Schultz (1982) stated that job satisfaction is essentially the psychological disposition of people toward their work. We will write a custom essay sample on Job Satisfaction or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Siegal and Lance (1987) stated simply that job satisfaction is an emotional response defining the degree to which people like their job. Finally, Lofquist and Davis (1991), defined job satisfaction as â€Å"an individual’s positive affective reaction of the target environment as a result of the individual’s appraisal of the extent to which his or her needs are fulfilled by the environment† (p. 27). The definition of job satisfaction has visibly evolved through the decades, but most versions share the belief that job satisfaction is a work-related positive affective reaction. There seems to be less consistency when talking about the causes of job satisfaction. Wexley and Yukl (1984) stated that job satisfaction is influenced by many factors, including personal traits and characteristics of the job. To better understand these employee and job characteristics and their relationship to job satisfaction, various theories have emerged and provided the vital framework for future job satisfaction studies. Early traditional theories suggested that a single bipolar continuum, with satisfaction on one end and dissatisfaction on the other, could be used to conceptualize job satisfaction. Later revisions of the theory included a two-continuum model that placed job satisfaction on the first scale, and job dissatisfaction on the second (Brown, 1998). These later theories focused more on the presence or absence of certain intrinsic and extrinsic job factors that could determine one’s satisfaction level. Intrinsic factors are based on personal perceptions and internal feelings, and include factors such as recognition, advancement, and responsibility. These factors have been strongly linked to job satisfaction according to 12 O’Driscoll and Randall (1999). Extrinsic factors are external job related variables that would include salary, supervision, and working conditions. These extrinsic factors have also been found to have a significant influence on job satisfaction levels according to Martin and Schinke (1998). Theories of Job Satisfaction There are numerous theories attempting to explain job satisfaction, but three conceptual frameworks seem to be more prominent in the literature. The first is content theory, which suggests that job satisfaction occurs when one’s need for growth and self-actualization are met by the individual’s job. The second conceptual framework is often referred to as process theory, which attempts to explain job satisfaction by looking at how well the job meets one’s expectations and values. The third conceptual group includes situational theories, which proposes that job satisfaction is a product of how well an individual’s personal characteristics interact or mesh with the organizational characteristics. Each of the three theoretical frameworks has been explored and reviewed by countless scholars and researchers, and the purpose of this chapter is not to provide an exhaustive review of job satisfaction theories. Instead, a highlight of the main theories and theorists from each framework will be offered, to provide clarity, relevance and direction to this study of job satisfaction. Content Theories When discussing human needs, growth, and self-actualization, one cannot look far before finding Abraham Maslow and his â€Å"hierarchy of needs†. Maslow’s (1954) traditionalist views of job satisfaction were based on his five-tier model of human needs. At the lowest tier, basic life sustaining needs such as water, food, and shelter were identified. The next level consisted of physical and financial security, while the third tier included needs of social acceptance, Situational Theories The situational occurrences theory emerged in 1992, when Quarstein, McAfee, and Glassman stated that job satisfaction is determined by two factors: situational characteristics and situational occurrences. Situational characteristics are things such as pay, supervision, working conditions, promotional opportunities, and company policies that typically are considered by the employee before accepting the job. The situational occurrences are things that occur after taking a job that may be tangible or intangible, positive or negative. Positive occurrences might include 16 extra vacation time, while negative occurrences might entail faulty equipment or strained coworker relationships. Within this theoretical framework, job satisfaction is a product of both situational factors and situational occurrences. Measurement of Job Satisfaction Measuring job satisfaction is difficult, for it is an abstract personal cognition that exists only in an individual’s mind. To measure job satisfaction, one must have a conceptual understanding of the construct in order to decide what indirect factors to measure. Since there is no single agreed upon definition of job satisfaction, and no widely accepted theory to explain it, it is no surprise that there is also no general consensus on the best way to measure job satisfaction (Wanous Lawler, 1972). The most basic forms of measurement might include an interview, a single-item measure, or a workplace observation; however, most researchers opt for a more objective and in-depth survey instrument (Spector, 1997). Questionnaires are easily distributed, have less room for bias, have increased likelihood of confidentiality, and require much less time and money than one-on-one interviews (Pedhazur Schmelkin, 1991). Job satisfaction questionnaires also can examine any number of facets that have hypothesized impact on job satisfaction, although the lack of common agreement with definition and theory can present challenges when weighting each facet and interpreting the results (Evans, 1969). The most widely cited survey instruments found in the literature include The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) and the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). The Job Satisfaction Survey The Job Satisfaction Survey was developed by Paul E. Spector to assess employee attitudes about the job and aspects of the job. The JSS is a 36 item questionnaire that targets nine separate facets of job satisfaction. Those facets include pay, promotion, benefits, supervision, 17 contingent rewards, operating procedures, coworkers, nature of work, and communication. Each of these facets is assessed with four items, and a total score is computed from all 36 items. Responses to each question range from strongly disagree to strongly agree, and questions are written in both directions. Job Descriptive Index The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) was first discussed in Smith, Kendall, and Hulins publication of the Measurement of Satisfaction in Work and Retirement (1969). This 90-item scale is designed to measure employees satisfaction with their jobs by looking at five important aspects or facets of job satisfaction which are present job, present pay, opportunities for promotion, supervision, and coworkers.